1942 was a good year for the Republican Party, including in Indiana. With this election, Indiana’s delegation in the House went from 7-4 Republican to 9-2 Republican. One of the victors was Charles La Follette (1898-1974), who defeated Democrat John W. Boehne for reelection. However, much to the chagrin of the party, La Follette would prove in the coming years to be to Boehne’s left. Although sometimes voting for the GOP position on price control amendments in the 78th Congress as well as against funds for the National Youth Administration on July 1st, 1943, he often voted for New Deal measures and would only grow more liberal over time.
La Follette’s record, true to his family reputation, was consistently favorable to organized labor, voting against a bill making extortion and robbery in interstate commerce illegal in 1943 (this measure was seen as directed at organized labor), Smith-Connally Labor Disputes Act in 1943, and the Case Labor Bill in 1946. He was also a critic of the House Committee on Un-American Activities, and in one of his first votes he voted against its continuation. In the 78th Congress, his MC-Index score was 48%. On June 22, 1944, he was the only Republican representative to vote against a bill leaving insurance regulation to the states. By 1946, La Follette’s record had become nearly 100% liberal, with his MC-Index score at a 10% for the 79th Congress and none of his votes for conservative positions occurring the second session. La Follette voted for $400 million in housing subsidies and against Rep. Jesse Wolcott’s (R-Mich.) 1946 amendment to end price controls on March 31, 1947. His DW-Nominate score was a -0.125, which makes him one of the most liberal Republicans to ever serve by that standard. Perhaps the Republicans should have known better about him, as his third cousins were Senator Robert La Follette Jr. (Prog.-Wis.) and Governor Philip La Follette, both liberals.
In 1946, he announced his run in the Republican primary against conservative Senator Raymond Willis. One report on him noted, “Lawyer La Follette has startled his G.O.P. colleagues by voting for New Deal measures, dismayed them by lectures on the evils of states’ rights” (TIME). However, Willis withdrew from renomination and conservative hardliner William Jenner ran instead. The Republican Party in 1946 in Indiana, like in Wisconsin in which Joseph McCarthy defeated Robert La Follette Jr., had no appetite for a La Follette and Jenner won the primary with 95% of the vote.
Afterwards La Follette played a major role in the Nazi Judges’ Trial at Nuremberg, serving as deputy chief counsel to prosecutor Telford Taylor and crafted the case against them. He would also be part of the founding of the liberal lobbying group Americans for Democratic Action and even serve as a director from 1949 to 1950. Interestingly, he called for former Secretary of State James F. Byrnes to form “something like ADA” for conservatives nationwide (The New York Times). Conservatives would commonly use reverse ADA and the AFL-CIO’s COPE (Committee on Political Education) ratings to determine legislator conservatism until the foundation of Americans for Constitutional Action in response to the 1958 midterms.
References
Conference Report on H.R. 2935, Dept. of Labor, Federal Security Appropriations, to recede and concur with a Senate amendment appropriating $45 million for the National Youth Administration, and allowing all youths between ages of 16 and 25 to participate in N.Y.A., rather than limiting the program to “needy” youth. Govtrack.
HR 4761 [Housing subsidies – $400 million]. Amend the National Housing Act by adding a new title relating to the prevention of speculation and excessive profits in the sale of housing, and insure the availability of real estate for housing purposes at fair and reasonable prices. Spence motion to instruct the House managers to agree to section 10(A) of the Senate amend. with the following amend. strike out $600,000,000 and insert $400,000,000. Govtrack.
HR 4908 [The “Case Bill”]. Provide for the appointment of fact-finding boards to investigate labor disputes seriously affecting the national public interest. On passage, the objections of the pres. to the contrary notwithstanding. (Failed). Govtrack.
HR 6042 [Wolcott Amendment]. Amend the Emergency Price Control Act of 1942, as amended, and the Stabilization Act of 1942, as amended. On Spence amendments. Govtrack.
To Recommit H.Res.422 [it was actually a vote on passage], Affirming the Intent of Congress That Regulation of Insurance Business Stay Under State Control. Govtrack.
Some people are born bound to be in politics, and such was the case with John Little McClellan (1896-1977), who his parents named after at-the-time Congressman John S. Little. Some also are born for tragedy, and it was so with McClellan, as his mother died three weeks after giving birth to him, and it would portend numerous personal losses in his life.
McClellan’s professional start was working in his father’s law office in Sheridan and served in the US Army during World War I as a first lieutenant in the aviation section of the Signal Corps. His first marriage to Eula Hicks in 1913 produced two children but ended in divorce in 1921. The divorce was bitter, and Hicks died despising McClellan. While serving as city attorney of Malvern, he would marry Lucille Smith who would love him throughout her life.
Political Career
Elected to Congress in 1934, McClellan started as a loyal New Dealer in his first term, although he made clear from the start that he would not be told how to vote. When a Democratic whip curtly instructed him to vote for a certain measure, McClellan responded, “Look, you don’t know me and I don’t know you, but we’re going to get to know each other pretty darn quick. I vote as I please” (TIME, 3). This foreshadowed his move rightward in the next Congress, and from his dissenting he challenged incumbent Hattie Caraway for her Senate seat. Part of his campaign pitch was that her job needed to be done by a man. This was seen as a referendum on FDR’s policies, and Roosevelt poured all available resources into defending her, and she did win the primary by 8,000 votes.
McClellan would assert that his loss in the primary was due to nearly all the state’s WPA workers voting for her under orders from Washington and that two internal revenue agents came to the state and reviewed the tax returns of prominent McClellan supporters, then announced that Caraway was the candidate to back (TIME, 4). Although out of office, he would not remain so.
Second Time’s a Charm
In 1942, McClellan ran for the Senate nomination against Arkansas Attorney General Jack Holt, and despite the Roosevelt Administration and the state party organization backing the latter, McClellan prevailed by over 50,000 votes. As a senator, he was on the right wing of the Democratic Party. Although McClellan supported Greek-Turkish Aid and the Marshall Plan after World War II, he was usually opposed to foreign aid measures unlike his colleague J. William Fulbright. McClellan frequently voted to limit the power of organized labor, such as with his vote for the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947. However, he had his limits. For instance, on June 16, 1958, he voted against the amendment by Senator Carl Curtis (R-Neb.) prohibiting “hot cargo” contracts, which prohibits an employer with a union from engaging in business with other businesses that the union is currently having a dispute with. He was also often opposed to intervention in the market unless it was on agriculture. McClellan was involved in efforts to deny the presidential nomination to Truman in the 1948 election (Johnson & Johnson, 97). However, the Dixiecrat movement flopped in Arkansas, with Truman winning 61.7% of the vote and even Republican Thomas E. Dewey came out ahead of Thurmond.
McClellan and the Government Operations Subcommittee
With the Republicans winning Congress in 1952, the Senate Republican leadership, albeit being publicly supportive of Senator Joseph McCarthy (R-Wis.), had realized that he was a loose cannon and sought to put him somewhere that they hoped would serve to contain him: the Government Operations Committee, which McClellan had chaired from 1949 to 1953. This committee was in the past committed to exposing waste and corruption in government. McCarthy, however, as chairman, had no intention of continuing the traditional work of the committee. As Roy Cohn recalled McCarthy telling him in December 1952, “You know, I’m going to be the chairman of the investigating committee in the Senate. They’re all trying to push me off the Communist issue…the sensible thing for me to do, they say, is start investigating the agriculture program or find out how many books they’ve got bound upside down at the Library of Congress. They want me to play it safe. I fought this Red issue. I won the primary on it. I won the election on it, and don’t see anyone else around who intends to take it on. You can be sure that as chairman of this committee this is going to be my work” (U.S. Senate, XVI). McCarthy held new investigations and hearings into his signature subject of communist subversion, and his chairmanship of the committee was such that he was taking up most of the time, with senators on the committee often not even bothering to attend as it was McCarthy’s show. Additionally, he would announce hearings on short notice, with senators sometimes sending their staffers to represent them. Per Harvard Law School Dean Erwin Griswold, McCarthy gave witnesses the impression that they were facing “judge, jury, prosecutor, castigator, and press agent, all in one” (U.S. Senate, XV).
McClellan grew critical of McCarthy’s methods, and in July 1953, he led a walkout of Democrats from the committee over McCarthy’s tactics and they would not return for months. He, along with all other voting Democrats, would vote to censure McCarthy the following year.
McClellan’s Numerous Losses
McClellan’s life had its share of tragedy. His first wife died of spinal meningitis in 1935 and all three of his sons died between 1943 and 1958; the first, Max, also from spinal meningitis while serving in Africa in 1943, the second, John Jr., from injuries in an auto accident in 1949. After the latter, and the third, James, from an airplane crash in 1958. A friend of his once said, “There’s not a man in the world with more excuse to throw up his hands and turn all his problems over to alcohol than John McClellan”, and indeed after the second son’s death he did, albeit for a brief period (TIME, 5). He was, however, spared from further loss as his third wife, Norma Myers, outlived him as did both his daughters, Doris and Mary Alice.
The McClellan Committee
Senator McClellan was well-aware of the issues of Joseph McCarthy’s (R-Wis.) approach on investigations, so he played the role of judge while he let counsel Robert F. Kennedy Jr. play the role of prosecutor. Interestingly, McCarthy was on this committee until his death on May 2, 1957. Other notable names on the committee included John F. Kennedy (D-Mass.), Barry Goldwater (R-Ariz.), and Frank Church (D-Idaho). Despite the team’s wariness of McCarthy’s practices, it still caught the ire of Senator Patrick McNamara (D-Mich.), who resigned in protest of what he saw as unfair treatment of union witnesses from Kennedy and numerous liberals argued that the committee did not try to see any culpability from management, rather just unions (Schlesinger). McNamara was one of the staunchest liberals in the Senate and a supporter of unions without qualification; he was essentially United Automobile Workers’ president Walter Reuther’s man in the Senate. That being said, McClellan had a record to limit the power of organized labor and Kennedy was not an expert interrogator and often lost his cool with unfriendly union witnesses, including insulting and bickering with them (Schlesinger). Nonetheless, testimony presented before the committee was devastating.
Union witness testimony revealed corruption, undemocratic practices in elections, as well as connections to organized crime in the Teamsters Union, the International Longshoremen’s Association, United Mine Workers, and other unions. This resulted in the Labor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959 (“Landrum-Griffin”), which included a slightly modified version of McClellan’s amendment providing for a labor bill of rights. I intend to go into much further detail about the McClellan Committee in a future post.
Hope for Retirement and Political Issues
A profile on McClellan by Time Magazine (1957) held that McClellan dreamed of retiring in 1960 and becoming law partner of his son Jimmy, although rival Sid McMath asserted, “McClellan swears he’ll run again in 1960 just to oppose me, and by God, I’ll be there to oppose” (7). Given Jimmy’s 1958 death and McClellan’s penchant for occupying himself with work in response to tragedy, it seems likely that his death called off any notion of retiring at that point.
McClellan voted against Medicare in 1960, 1962, and 1964, but in 1965 he voted against deleting Medicare from the Social Security Act Amendments. He also voted against the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, the heart of the Great Society’s anti-poverty push. McClellan backed both Minority Leader Everett Dirksen’s (R-Ill.) efforts to amend the Constitution in permitting one house of a state legislature to use factors other than population to determine legislative districts and to permit school prayer. These amendments were in response to Supreme Court decisions Reynolds v. Sims (1964) and Engel v. Vitale (1962) respectively. McClellan voted for both of Nixon’s failed Supreme Court nominees from the South, Clement Haynsworth and G. Harrold Carswell, who McClellan and other conservatives hoped would push back against liberal decisions.
Aside from ideological issues, a clincher for McClellan when it came to getting renominated was his ability to drive federal dollars to Arkansas for public works projects. He sponsored with Senator Robert S. Kerr (D-Okla.) a bill providing for the construction of the McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System, which at the time was the largest such project undertaken by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, making the Arkansas River navigable and bringing billions in commerce to the state (Goss).
McClellan on Civil Rights – You Aren’t Surprised, Are You?
I’ve got a confession to make. I’m getting a little tired when writing of every figure from the former Confederacy in a certain period to call them a “segregationist”, as this was the rule rather than the exception with such politicians rendering such designations as redundant unless they were particularly egregious about it. Thus, I’ll say that McClellan voted on civil rights exactly as you would think a man of his time and place did. However, his outspoken opposition became notable in response to President Eisenhower’s order to send the National Guard to Little Rock, Arkansas to enforce desegregation, stating, “I believe it to be without authority of law, I am very apprehensive that such action may precipitate more trouble than it will prevent” (Cobb & Griffee, 237-238). He was in truth a cautious and judicious figure, much like his Mississippi colleague John C. Stennis as opposed to a demagogue like Governor George Wallace of Alabama or Senator James Eastland of Mississippi. In 1972, McClellan voted for the Equal Rights Amendment, although this was a popular proposal at the time and passed 84-8. He did continue voting against civil rights proposals into the 1970s, including being one of 12 senators to vote against extending the Voting Rights Act in 1975.
McClellan: Crime Fighter
Senator McClellan, in addition to investigations into union corruption and organized crime, repeatedly backed “tough on crime” proposals. In 1968, he opposed two amendments by Senator Joseph Tydings (D-Md.) to retain in criminal law that a confession could be rendered inadmissible by delay in arraignment alone and that a confession could be ruled inadmissible even if found to be given voluntarily. While in 1970, many Southern senators followed Senator Ervin (D-N.C.) in opposing “no knock” searches for drugs, McClellan was not among them, voting in accord instead with the Nixon Administration and the majority of Senate Republicans. That year, he also backed RICO.
Later Years
In 1972, McClellan faced a tough primary challenge from the far younger and more liberal Congressman David Pryor. This was the first major challenge he had since his election in 1942, and McClellan was 76 years old by this time. Pryor’s campaign was a fiery populist one, charging McClellan with being too favorable to “greedy corporations, “the big boys”, and “the arrogant rich” while voting against government programs to combat poverty (Reed). However, he pulled through with 52% of the vote. McClellan would go on to easily defeat his Republican opponent. In retrospect, it was quite fortunate for McClellan that his reelection year happened to be 1972 instead of 1974. His colleague, Fulbright, who was more liberal than him on many issues including civil rights, lost renomination badly that year to the even more liberal Governor Dale Bumpers.
In 1976, McClellan coauthored a revision of U.S. copyright laws, which had last been updated in 1909. One project he had put a lot of effort into was rewriting the federal criminal code. The trouble with federal law was explained in the New York Times, “The Federal Criminal Code has built up, bit by bit, over nearly 200 years as Congress felt called upon to impose national criminal sanctions. It has never before been codified and harmonized into a single coherent document with uniform classification of offenses and punishment” (Weaver). This new codification included modernizing language, implementation of some recommendations from the National Commission on Reform of Federal Criminal Laws, and innovations. This process was for a while viewed with suspicion by liberals as it presented opportunities for conservative revisions, which were initially in the legislation including reinstating the death penalty for murder and treason (Weaver). McClellan and his fellow conservatives voted for restoring the federal death penalty in separate legislation in 1974, but it did not become law. By 1977, McClellan had worked out an arrangement with Senator Ted Kennedy (D-Mass.) to get agreement on this codification, including maintaining the status quo on the federal death penalty at the time. Although it passed the Senate, it never made it out of the House Judiciary Committee. The U.S. to this day has not achieved a rewrite of its criminal code as such efforts have been bogged down by ideological controversies, although there are federal sentencing guidelines.
The End
McClellan began slowing down in the mid-1970s, having developed a heart condition and in the summer of 1976, he had a pacemaker surgically implanted. Although he remained mentally alert as ever, he grew increasingly tired (Rosenbaum). On November 21, 1977, McClellan announced he would be retiring rather than running for another term in 1978. One week later, he died in his sleep. In 1978, David Pryor won the election to succeed him.
The Washington Post (1977) summed up its view on him after his passing thusly, “In much of this [the issues of his time] we had found ourselves on the opposite side from John McClellan, especially where racial and civil-liberties questions were concerned. But none of that alters our view that Sen. McClellan was a man of personal dignity and fairness, who did not abuse his power in the Senate or seek to close out the views of those who disagreed with him”.
Note: The votes on Joseph Tydings’ (D-Md.) proposed amendments on crime can be found on my post regarding Americans for Constitutional Action on the 90th Congress. Nearly all of the other votes I mentioned can be found on Americans for Democratic Action’s website, search for the corresponding year:
Cobb, O. & Griffee, C.M. (1989). Osro Cobb of Arkansas: memoirs of historical significance. Little Rock, AR: Rose Publishing Company.
Executive Sessions of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, Vol. 1, Eighty-Third Congress, First Session. U.S. Senate.
S. 3974. Labor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1958. Amendment to Bar “Hot Cargo” Contracts and to Strengthen Laws Against Secondary Boycotts, and Recognition and Organizational Picketing. Govtrack.
While many politicians are said to spit on their fingers and hold them up to the wind to ascertain where to stand, this could seldom be said for Millard Tydings. He served in the US Army from 1916 to 1919, where he served with distinction. War service, of course, is an excellent addition for a political resume, and Tydings was elected to the Maryland House of Delegates in 1919, serving as speaker from 1920 to 1922. He most notably in this role opposed the ratification of the 19th Amendment, a fact that would for a time upset his liberal feminist wife (Conroy). This interestingly was not unusual for Democrats in Maryland of the time: of the four Democrats in the House and Senate from that time, only Rep. J. Charles Linthicum voted for. He likewise opposed Prohibition. In 1922, Tydings moved up to the Maryland State Senate but wasn’t there for long as that year he defeated Republican Congressman Albert Blakeney for reelection in the midterms.
In Congress
As a representative, Tydings was one of the more conservative Democrats and this worked well for Maryland voters at the time: Senator William Cabell Bruce, elected in 1922, was much the same as Tydings, and in 1926 he ran for the Senate, defeating Republican incumbent Ovington Weller. In 1931, Tydings opposed restoring funds for the Sheppard-Towner Act, participating in a filibuster against it (Lemons, 786). This foreshadowed his stance on the programs of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Tydings was a seemingly more vociferous foe of Roosevelt than he had been for Hoover, and was the only Democratic senator to vote against all three of the following acts: the Agricultural Adjustment Act, the Tennessee Valley Authority, and the National Industrial Recovery Act. He didn’t vote on the Social Security Act and voted against the Wagner Act, the latter being regarded as the Magna Carta of labor union rights. Time Magazine (June 13, 1938) said he was the “Inheritor of the late Governor Ritchie’s conservative mantle…”. He was outspoken against Roosevelt’s efforts at increasing power with the “court packing plan” and his proposed executive reorganization, both battles he won in the 75th Congress due to dissenting Democrats. His political opponents, such as New Dealer journalist Drew Pearson, called him “Mi-Lord Tydings” as they regarded him as an American aristocrat. However, he had a working-class background and would in 1936 marry into money through Ambassador Joseph Davies’ daughter, Eleanor. In 1934, Tydings introduced a resolution condemning Nazi oppression of Jews in Germany, and requesting President Roosevelt to inform the German government of the U.S.’s disapproval, which would not make it out of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. One of his most notable achievements was the Tydings-McDuffie Act in 1934, which provided for a gradual independence for the Philippines, to be completed in 1946. Despite World War II in the meantime, the plan was kept and the Philippines was independent in 1946.
FDR’s Purge Effort & Post-War Politics
In 1938, FDR saw a chance to remake the Democratic Party and aimed to do so by targeting primarily senators for defeat in the primary. Time Magazine (June 13, 1938) explained the president’s logic: “The Roosevelt reasoning is supposed to be that, since some Senate seats must probably be lost anyway, he would be wise to pick even losing nominees, in order to retain control of State machinery for the more important political year of 1940”. Of all the Democrats, Tydings was the one for who FDR’s wrath was most justified as his record had been the least loyal of the targets. Roosevelt personally loathed him and told Interior Secretary Harold Ickes to “Take Tydings’ hide off and rub salt on it” (Rosenfeld). Roosevelt also got a top recruit in Congressman David J. Lewis, an administration loyalist who played a major role in the drafting and passage of Social Security. However, what Roosevelt didn’t count on is that in this time state parties didn’t appreciate federal interference, and this theme was used effectively against Roosevelt’s efforts. All senators Roosevelt targeted won renomination and reelection.
Although an antagonist of FDR’s New Deal, he was on board with the administration on foreign policy: he supported repealing the arms embargo, the peacetime draft, and Lend Lease. However, he thought that permitting merchant ships to enter belligerent ports in 1941 was a step too far. Tydings’ views on foreign policy would become even more favorable to the Democratic Party after the start of World War II. Although Tydings was regarded as a conservative Democrat, by the Truman Administration he was perhaps a bit less so: Americans for Democratic Action gave him the following ratings adjusted to not count absences:
1947 – 60% 1948 – 67% 1949 – 50% 1950 – 53%
He was staunchly internationalist, supporting Greek Turkish Aid, the Marshall Plan, and Point IV foreign aid to poor nations while being somewhat opposed to the Fair Deal. In 1950, he opposed liberalizing housing credit and supported legalizing “basing point” pricing (pricing that includes freight costs, thus allowing for differences based on difficulty) while opposing limiting the Social Security Administrator’s authority over states and supporting extending rent control.
Millard Tydings vs. Joseph McCarthy
On February 9, 1950, a senator who at this point had been known most for launching an ill-conceived investigation into the military for alleged mistreatment (which didn’t happen) of Nazi defendants in the Malmedy Massacre trial and for accepting a $20,000 loan from Pepsi’s Washington representative after which he pushed against sugar rationing, made his big splash with his speech in Wheeling, West Virginia titled “Enemies from Within”, in which he famously held out a document, stating that in his hand he had a list of 205 communists within the federal government. There was a letter written by Secretary of State James Byrnes to Rules Committee Chairman Adolph J. Sabath (D-Ill.) in 1946 that 284 employees were recommended against permanent employment, but only 79 were out of the government (POTUS Geeks). There were a few problems with using this letter as a baseline for communists in government. First, these people were not necessarily communists, rather people thought of as security risks for one reason or another. It could have been political, but it could have also been due to gambling, alcoholism, or suspected homosexuality. Second, by the time of the Wheeling speech, only 65 of these people remained in government and they had undergone additional security checks. McCarthy would later clarify that there were 57 of such people, a figure which came from the “Lee List”, a list of individuals flagged by House Appropriations Committee investigator Robert E. Lee (Griffith, 51). The State Department had informed the House that of the 108 people Lee listed, 57 remained by 1948. These people were not flagged as “communists”, rather as “security risks” and the reasons included alcoholism and marital infidelity.
The Senate formed a committee to investigate these charges and the Democratic leadership selected Tydings to head it, as the thinking was, he couldn’t be accused of having communist sympathies given his reputation as a conservative Democrat. However, the committee devolved into partisan bickering. The majority report concluded McCarthy’s charges to be a “fraud and a hoax” while McCarthy ally William Jenner (R-Ind.) charged that Tydings had engaged in the “the most brazen whitewash of treasonable conspiracy in our history” (Fried, 124-125). The Senate voted three times on accepting the report, with each vote being a purely partisan split. Even Margaret Chase Smith (R-Me.), who issued a declaration of conscience against McCarthy’s methods and would vote to censure him charged the committee of having “…made the fatal error of subjectively attempting to discredit McCarthy rather than objectively investigating and evaluating his charges” (Schapsmeier & Schapsmeier).
The 1950 Election: McCarthy Tries to Purge Tydings
1950 was a bad year for Democrats and liberals in particular: they lost a net of five Senate seats and of six incumbents to lose reelection, five were Democrats including Majority Leader Scott Lucas of Illinois. While many attributed Republican gains in the 1950 election to the growing influence of Senator McCarthy, and there is a bit of truth here in Maryland given McCarthy’s sending of his staff to run Republican John Marshall Butler’s campaign as well the distribution of a composite photo (i.e. “photoshop”) of Tydings and CPUSA Chairman Earl Browder, there were other factors at play here. First of all, it was a midterm and the president’s party historically doesn’t tend to do well in such elections. Second, Tydings had alienated a number of key Democratic groups, including organized labor with his vote for the Taft-Hartley Act and with blacks; his record on civil rights legislation was spotty as in 1950 while he had supported cloture for a compromise Fair Employment Practices law, he had also voted for Senator Richard Russell’s (D-Ga.) proposal to weaken the implementation of army desegregation. This was a time in which the black vote was Democratic leaning but not monolithic, and this was thanks to the Dixiecrats as well as people like Tydings. Thus, the wrong Democrat or the right Republican could lose or win the black vote respectively. Such was the case with Millard Tydings, and McCarthy saw an opportunity and took it. The Republicans did in 1950 what FDR could not in 1938: on election day Butler won by over 43,000 votes.
In December 1950, Tydings filed a complaint with the Senate over the election over unfair and illegal campaign practices that he believed influenced the result. These included excessive campaign spending and major unlisted out-of-state contributions. Of particular note was the role played by the campaign’s public relations director Jon M. Jonkel, as he had formed the strategy as well as had been responsible for mismanagement of campaign finance records, for which he would be convicted in Maryland courts (U.S. Senate). Butler was found at fault for failing to properly oversee his campaign. He had allowed McCarthy to play an outsized role in his campaign including with illegal financial transactions with out of state donors and outright falsehoods, but no action was recommended against him absent a standard laid out for Senate campaigns (U.S. Senate).
Although in 1956 Tydings had planned to have a rematch with Butler and won the primary, his health was declining and it became clear to him that he wouldn’t be able to effectively serve, thus he dropped out. The Democrats were a bit divided in this traditionally Democratic state between the more conservative and segregationist wing and the liberal wing. Instead of picking Tydings’ wife Eleanor, they picked segregationist George P. Mahoney, who had previously lost the 1952 Senate race. This, plus Eisenhower’s resounding win, helped bring Butler, a staunch conservative normally ill-positioned to win in the state, another term. Tydings wouldn’t have survived another term in the Senate, as he died on February 9, 1961. His adopted son, Joseph Tydings, would serve in the Senate from 1965 to 1971, and politically be far more like his liberal mother than Millard.
Overall
Millard Tydings is the sort of Democrat who really doesn’t exist in federally elected office today and wouldn’t make it in either party, especially given how voters are now far more sensitive to how their party’s president feels about a candidate. I admit I have some level of admiration for him winning four terms in the Senate despite often moving against the popular opinion of his times. As he said about serving in the Senate, “If I can’t vote my convictions here, to hell with this job!” (TIME, Sept. 12, 1938)
References
Conroy, S.B. (1994, May 2). Her Front-Row Seat to History. The Washington Post.
I recently covered Prescott Bush, grandfather and father of Presidents George H.W. Bush and George W. Bush respectively, and he had a rather moderate approach to politics. Today I cover another figure whose son moved far ahead of him in the realm of politics: Howard Baker Sr. (1902-1964).
Baker started young in politics, winning election to the Tennessee General Assembly in 1928. His son, Baker Jr., was three years old at the time. In 1928, Republicans were a distinct minority in Tennessee, although not a hopeless one; from 1911 to 1915 Republican Ben Hooper was governor, and in 1920 Warren G. Harding had won the state and Republicans five of ten House seats. In 1928, Hoover had won Tennessee, but the state party continued to elect their only two usual Republicans to Congress: in the 1st (based in Johnson City) and the 2nd (based in Knoxville) districts. These were both in East Tennessee, a region that had been staunchly unionist during the War of the Rebellion. Baker’s activity in politics translated him rising to be head of the Scott County GOP in 1932, holding the post for sixteen years. He was also elected district attorney general of the 19th judicial circuit in 1934, a post held until 1938, when he was seeking higher office.
Running for Office
In 1938, Baker ran for governor against Democrat Prentice Cooper, who was overwhelmingly favored to win, and indeed Cooper won with 71.7% of the vote. We should bear in mind that Cooper was strongly backed by Memphis political powerhouse Edward Hull Crump, whose machine determined statewide elections at the time. In 1940, he tried yet again to run against the Crump machine by running for Senate against Kenneth McKellar, a senator who chaired the Appropriations Committee, funneling a lot of federal funds to Tennessee. Baker might have run for Congress back in the thirties had Knoxville’s representative not been the popular J. Will Taylor, known affectionately by his constituents as “Hillbilly Bill” who had completely and utterly dominated in patronage in the 1920s, with all federal money dispensed to Tennessee by Republican administrations going through him (Hill). However, in 1939 Taylor died and was succeeded by John Jennings Jr. Jennings was considerably more conservative, never had the following or power that Taylor wielded, and was vulnerable to primary challenges. Between 1941 and 1950 he was involved with the First National Bank of Oneida among the board of directors and as vice president and general counsel for the Western and Oneida Railroad.
Although 1950 was as an election an undoubtable shift to the right, and this is the way it was in Tennessee’s 1st based in Johnson City, this was not how it was in the Knoxville district, with Howard Baker Sr., his campaign being managed by his son Baker Jr., defeating Jennings 2-1 in the Republican primary (Hill, Baker). That year, perhaps the Democrat having a better chance as there was no incumbent to fight, held Baker to 52.2% of the vote. This would easily be his closest contest, and he would be a popular representative, often winning reelection with around 2/3’s of the vote and Democrats not even bothering to field a candidate against him in 1956 and 1960.
A Moderate Republican
Baker represented a bit of a different Republicanism than the Goldwater conservatism that was gaining in popularity in the party. Although on some questions he was fiscally conservative and was indeed socially conservative, including supporting a school prayer amendment to the Constitution, he was willing to on numerous occasions vote for legislation he regarded as helping the people of his district. This included the Area Redevelopment Act, an anti-poverty measure targeted at rural areas which was opposed by many Republicans, including his Republican colleagues in the 88th Congress Jimmy Quillen and Bill Brock. Both Americans for Constitutional Action and Americans for Democratic Action regarded Baker as moderate in his record based on average scores. Baker Sr.’s philosophy he told to his son, “You should always go through life working on the assumption that the other guy might be right” (Hunt). His middling Americans for Constitutional Action and Americans for Democratic Action scores reflect this approach:
Years
ACA
ADA
1951
n/a
17%
1952
n/a
25%
1953
n/a
36%
1954
n/a
33%
1955
n/a
78%
1956
n/a
100%
1957
29%
43%
1958
67%
42%
1959
63%
56%
1960
50%
44%
1961
55%
20%
1962
55%
25%
1963
72%
27%
Average
56%
42%
Baker’s advice to his son we seldom publicly see followed today in terms of attitudes (what goes on behind closed doors is probably a bit different). Baker Jr. would often heed his father’s words.
Baker and Civil Rights
Howard Baker maintained connections with black leaders in Tennessee such as George W. Lee, but his civil rights record was a bit mixed. While he didn’t sign the Southern Manifesto, voted for the Eisenhower-backed civil rights bill in 1956, the Civil Rights Act of 1960, and the 24th Amendment banning the poll tax in federal elections, he voted against all efforts at attaching anti-discrimination amendments to bills (most notably Powell Amendments directed at education funding) and voted against the Civil Rights Act of 1957. President Eisenhower also was against Powell Amendments as they undermined Southern support for education bills. The Powell Amendment would eventually become Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which cuts off federal funding for segregated schools.
Legacy
Baker did not live to see his son rise to even greater heights in politics, as he died suddenly and unexpectedly of a heart attack on January 7, 1964. Howard Baker Jr. would be elected to the Senate in 1966. He rose up in leadership and by 1977, he was Senate Minority Leader, and in 1981, he was Senate Majority Leader, being the father of the modern Tennessee GOP. Baker is a bit of an interesting figure as we don’t often associate Southern Republicanism, particularly that from Tennessee, as being the purview of political moderates, but Baker was one, and represented an older tradition of politicians from poor rural regions being willing to accept certain federal assistance, much like the more conservative Bible-thumping Eugene Siler of Kentucky. Baker’s district today is represented by Tim Burchett, whose current American Conservative Union score is a 91%, a stark contrast to Baker Sr.’s middling scores from ACA. I’m not necessarily saying that one must become less ideological, but I think we could see a lot less stridency nowadays.
Richard Nixon didn’t win the 1960 election. However, he performed strongly in Maine, winning by 14 points. His victory in the state seems to have impacted down-ticket races, and that year incumbent Congressman Frank Coffin of the 2nd district opted to run for governor, with attorney Stan Tupper (1921-2006) of Boothbay Harbor winning the vacant seat. The previous election year, 1958, had been a great one for the Democrats, with them electing their first Democrat to the Senate since the Taft Administration in Ed Muskie, but 1960 seemed like a return to form for the state.
The start of the Kennedy presidency met with significant resistance from Republicans, and even a mild fellow like Tupper got a positive adjusted score from Americans for Constitutional Action (ACA) in his first year at 64% and a negative score from Americans for Democratic Action (ADA) at 30%. Many Republicans scored a 100% from ACA and 0% from ADA that year. Tupper opposed expanding the Rules Committee to aid passage of the Kennedy agenda and voted against a strong minimum wage bill that year, but he also voted for the Area Redevelopment Act (an anti-poverty measure largely aimed at rural areas) and was one of the few House Republicans to be known to support considering the Kennedy Administration’s education bill. In the next year, by contrast, ACA gave him a 27% while ADA gave him a whopping 100%. As a result of the 1960 census, Maine lost a seat in Congress, and he was up against Congressman Peter Garland for the remaining seat. Garland had been quite a popular figure and a conservative, but Tupper won.
Tupper’s record in the next Congress frequently contrasted from that of his fellow Maine representative, Clifford McIntire. Unlike McIntire, he voted for the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 as well as against an effort to curb the Supreme Court’s jurisdiction over state legislative apportionment. However, he voted with McIntire to kill federal aid to mass transit. The 1964 election was a bit of a tough one for Republicans, especially for those on the Eastern seaboard. Goldwater only won 31% of the vote in Maine and none of the state’s counties, yet Tupper barely held on with 50.1% of the vote, winning by only 203 votes in the closest race in the House that year (CQ Almanac). He was the only major Republican on the ballot to win in the state that year, and McIntire only slightly outperformed Goldwater in his bid for a Senate seat against incumbent Ed Muskie, getting 33% of the vote and winning only one county. He had also been the only Republican officeholder in Maine to refuse to endorse Goldwater, and this had saved his bacon despite having gotten him in hot water with Republicans in Maine. By contrast, Republican Paul Laxalt running that year for the Senate in Nevada refused to heed the advice of his campaign staff and not campaign with Goldwater in a scheduled appearance in Las Vegas, stating, “Look, Barry Goldwater is my friend. If I was to duck him now, I could never look him in the face again. I’d rather lose” (ThisIsReno). Laxalt lost the Senate election by 48 votes, a record for closest Senate election that stands to this day, delaying his entry to the Senate by ten years. However, Tupper still stuck by Goldwater as a friend, and he knew and appreciated it.
The Great Society Congress and After
Tupper was one of the strongest Republican supporters of Great Society legislation and in 1965 he was one of two Republican cosponsors of Medicare (the other was New York’s John Lindsay), of which he considered one of his greatest achievements. However, he also backed a Republican effort to recommit the bill. Unlike how he voted in 1961 on the minimum wage, he was in support of a strong measure in 1966, and that year he was one of the few House Republicans to support retention of rent subsidies despite opposing them in 1965. Tupper also had a consistently favorable record on civil rights, supporting the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and open housing. He decided to bow out of politics in 1966, but in 1973 he considered running for governor. Tupper decided against despite excellent polling numbers for family reasons.
In his later years, he maintained a youthful vigor according to friends and maintained his law practice into the 2000s. Tupper also was a co-chair of the McCain primary campaign in 2000. He died on January 6, 2006, 19 days short of his 85th birthday.
Tupper’s Ideology, Per ACA and ADA adjusted scores:
Years
ACA
ADA
1961
64
30
1962
27
100
1963
35
64
1964
28
58
1965
13
56
1966
16
79
Average
31
65
References
Griffin, C. (2003, January 30). A Salute to Stan Tupper: Rotary’s 2003 Recipient of the Lifetime Service Award. Rotary Club.
With President Eisenhower’s 1952 election to the presidency comes both of Connecticut’s Senate seats. One of the victors is President Eisenhower’s frequent golfing buddy, a prominent businessman, and a political moderate. Although he will always be overshadowed by his son and grandson for their roles in American history, Prescott Sheldon Bush (1895-1972) still bears writing about.
The source of the initial wealth of the Bush family did not come from Prescott, rather his father, Samuel Prescott Bush, who made his fortune as a steel and railroad executive. However, Prescott wanted to make his own way and got into the field of banking, notably capitalizing on his father-in-law George Herbert Walker’s connections, which got him a leading position in Brown Brothers Harriman.
Prescott Bush and Connection to Nazi Germany
If you are to search “Prescott Bush” and “Nazis” it is difficult to find a source on the first page of search results that isn’t ideologically motivated and was posted during the presidency of George W. Bush. The least ideologically motivated source I could find was a South African article on the matter. At the time of W.’s presidency, some of these quite a bit was made out of Prescott Bush becoming one of the directors of Brown Brothers Harriman, including holding a share in Union Banking Corporation (UBC), of which he was a director and was a clearinghouse for the German industrialist Fritz Thyssen. Thyssen had, believing that Hitler was the best shot Germany had against communism, been one of the people who had bankrolled his rise.
Prescott Bush did not actually own his single share of Union Banking Corp., he had held it on behalf of Dutch Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart N.V., the owner of the UBC. However, he was also one of its seven directors. On October 20, 1942, UBC’s assets were seized under the Trading with the Enemy Act, under suspicion that the Dutch bank had come under the control of the Nazis, as the Netherlands was by this time under Nazi occupation. By this time, it should be noted, Thyssen himself was being held as a political prisoner by the Nazis; he had politically broken with them over Kristallnacht. Bush was involved in the war effort himself, heading up the U.S.O. and the National War Fund campaign (USDOT).
Politics
Once Bush had paid off his children’s tuition, he decided to get into politics. His motivation was that he thought America needed a robust two-party system and that the Democrats had remained in power too long. From 1947 to 1950, Bush served as the chairman of the Finance Committee of the Connecticut GOP. This positioned him to run for the Senate in 1950 against interim incumbent William Benton. Although 1950 was a bad year for Truman and particularly liberal Democrats, journalist Drew Pearson, a New Deal Democrat, anti-anti-Communist, and bane of many politicians in Washington, published an article days before the election that highlighted Bush’s involvement with Planned Parenthood and claimed he was pushing birth control (Federal Highways Administration). Although Bush denied that he was pushing birth control, this charge was damaging in Connecticut at the time, which had many Catholic voters, and he lost by 1000 votes. Conservative columnist Westbrook Pegler had written earlier that year on Bush that he “is coming on to be known as President Truman’s Harry Hopkins [FDR’s close advisor]. Nobody knows Mr. Bush and he hasn’t a Chinaman’s chance” (Pegler) And although he suffered another setback when Republicans chose William Purtell over him to run against Benton, on July 28, 1952, Democratic Senator Brien McMahon died of lung cancer and Republicans nominated Bush to finish his term. Bush narrowly won the 1952 election against Congressman Abe Ribicoff, running well behind Eisenhower in the state.
Senator Bush
If I were to give you an example of the ultimate Eisenhower Republican aside from President Eisenhower himself, I’d give Prescott Bush. Eisenhower even thought of him a good candidate for president in the future. He was staunchly internationalist, opposing the Bricker Amendment, and in 1954 he voted to censure Joseph McCarthy. Bush argued that he had “caused dangerous divisions among the American people because of his attitude and the attitude he has encouraged among his followers: that there can be no honest differences of opinion with him. Either you must follow Senator McCarthy blindly, not daring to express any doubts or disagreements about any of his actions, or, in his eyes, you must be a Communist, a Communist sympathizer, or a fool who has been duped by the Communist line” (TIME, 1954). His scores from Americans for Democratic Action, a liberal lobbying group, ranged from 23% to 58%.
Bush was involved in the passage of the Interstate Highway Act in 1956 and voted to keep the prevailing wage provision for public highway projects objected to by conservatives. His role in aiding passage was significant enough that Theodore H. White, a writer at the time, commented that he was “an able and distinguished man making his mark for the first time upon the Senate and nation in an issue of national significance” (Federal Highways Administration). During the Kennedy Administration, he cosponsored the legislation establishing the Peace Corps.
On civil rights, Bush could be counted firmly in support. He voted against both key amendments weakening the Civil Rights Act of 1957, the O’Mahoney-Kefauver-Church jury trial amendment and the Anderson-Aiken amendment striking of 14th Amendment implementation, and even against a pre-arranged maneuver in 1960 to strip the attorney general of authority to issue injunctions in civil rights cases, initiated by Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson (D-Tex.) and supported by Eisenhower. In 1962, he voted for the 24th Amendment (ban poll taxes for federal elections) as well as a bill prohibiting literacy tests to vote and establishing a sixth-grade education as a presumption of literacy.
Other Issues
Although Bush voted for an effort to weaken a minimum wage bill in 1960, he voted against a similar effort in 1961. He voted against Medicare both in 1960 and 1962. Bush’s response to the Kennedy Administration was mixed, as indeed it was for many New England Republicans who were both moderate and recognized President Kennedy’s popularity in the region. This included former Speaker of the House Joe Martin (R-Mass.), once regarded as an arch-foe by liberal activists who was now an Eisenhower Republican in inclination. Bush was also among a minority of Republican senators who voted against a 1954 bill for statehood for both Hawaii and Alaska. He only voted for Hawaii statehood after Alaska had been admitted, the latter he had voted against.
Retirement
In May 1962, Bush announced that he would not run for reelection. He stated that he lacked “the strength and vigor needed to do full justice to the campaign ahead, or to the responsibilities involved in serving another six years in the Senate” (TIME, 1962). Bush had been facing a tough reelection as Abe Ribicoff had announced he was going to resign his post as Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare to run for the seat. Internal polling from both campaigns found Ribicoff to be leading Bush (TIME, 1962). Indeed, Ribicoff did win the election against Congressman Horace Seely-Brown by 2.5 points.
Although Bush was for a time bullish on Nelson Rockefeller and wanted him for president, his divorce disgusted him, and he asked, “Have we come to the point in our life as a nation where the governor of a great state… can desert a good wife, mother of his grown children, divorce her, then persuade the mother of four youngsters to abandon her husband and their four children and marry the governor?” (Simkin). Many Republicans thought the same, which contributed to Nelson Rockefeller being unable to clinch the 1964 presidential nomination. Although Bush initially favored Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. for the nomination, once nominated he supported Barry Goldwater’s candidacy. He had been a lifelong smoker, dying on October 8, 1972 of lung cancer, twenty years after the same illness felled McMahon.
References
A Bush at Both Ends: Before and After the Interstate Era. Federal Highways Administration.
Thomas Joseph Dodd (1907-1971) had quite an impressive background for a career in elected office. A lawyer by profession, he was a special agent for the FBI from 1933 to 1934 and in 1935 was made director of the National Youth Administration in Connecticut. He also was involved with the Justice Department’s first civil rights section, being involved with prosecutions of KKK members in South Carolina (The New York Times). Dodd also served as an assistant to five attorney generals from 1938 to 1945 and prosecuted a German spy ring during World War II.
After the war, Dodd served as executive trial counsel for the Office of the United States Chief of Counsel for the Prosecution of Axis Criminality actively participated in the Nuremberg Trials. He drafted indictments, cross-examined leading Nazis, and presented evidence before the court of numerous Nazi atrocities including deportations for slave labor and storing personal valuables of murdered concentration camp inmates in the Reichsbank including gold teeth. His work was met with praise and awards, although he rejected one from Poland in 1949; by that time it had a communist government, and he didn’t want to receive an award from a tyrannical regime.
Dodd Goes to Congress
When Dodd got into electoral politics, Connecticut still had a bit of a history as a Republican state, although Democrats and Republicans were regularly battling it out: the 1936 and 1940 elections yielded an all Democratic House delegation, while the 1942 and 1946 elections yielded an all Republican House delegation.
When Dodd ran for Congress in 1952, it was a strong year for Republicans, with Eisenhower winning and Republicans winning both houses of Congress. He was the only Democratic winner in the state that year, succeeding Abe Ribicoff in the 1st district, based in Hartford. Dodd as a representative voted as a liberal, including in 1954 and 1956 scoring a 100% from Americans for Democratic Action.
In 1956, Dodd ran for the Senate against incumbent Prescott Bush, father and grandfather of Presidents George H.W. and George W. Bush. However, the year was solid for Republicans and Bush won all but one county in the state, winning by 10 points. However, even some of the greatest political figures in American history have lost an election, and he was determined to try again. In the interim, Dodd was a paid lobbyist for Guatemala’s military dictator Carlos Castillo Armas.
1958: Dodd Victory, Republican Collapse in Connecticut
The 1958 midterms were terrible for Republicans, especially in New England, and in no state was this more clear than in Connecticut. All six of the state’s representatives, all Republican, lost reelection that year, and Dodd defeated incumbent William Purtell by 15 points, winning all counties.
A Liberal Anti-Communist
When he first entered the Senate, Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson (D-Tex.) promised him a spot on the influential Foreign Relations Committee if he voted against Senator Clinton Anderson’s (D-N.M.) effort at ending Rule 22, which required 2/3’s vote to end debate in the Senate (The New York Times). Although Dodd had campaigned against Rule 22, he played ball. However, Johnson wasn’t able to deliver and the spot went to Al Gore Sr. (D-Tenn.), who had seniority, and so Dodd was promised the next vacancy and offered a choice between Appropriations, Space, and Judiciary. He took Appropriations, but was frequently absent at committee meetings, with one associate of his stating that “it became a terrible embarrassment” (The New York Times). Even though Johnson got him the next vacancy on Foreign Relations, he still was frequently absent from meetings.
From his posts, Dodd developed a reputation as being a staunch anti-communist. For instance, on July 8, 1959, he voted for the Bridges-Johnston Amendment, stopping foreign aid to any nation that expropriates American-owned property without proper compensation in response to Communist Cuba’s nationalization of American property, something his normally more conservative colleague, Eisenhower Republican Prescott Bush, voted against. His anti-communist rhetoric and some of his foreign policy votes win approval from conservatives of the time. Dodd could get quite personal in his conduct, particularly if he found colleagues to be insufficiently anti-communist. One example was Dodd attacking Senator J. William Fulbright (D-Ark.), when he opposed proposals to deny aid to Communist Yugoslavia and to increase aid to Francoist Spain, by suggesting that he was more willing to help Communist than non-Communist nations, to which Fulbright responded that his motives regarding aid to Guatemala perhaps should be looked into, as he had supported increasing aid to the nation as a representative in 1956 (The New York Times). However, Dodd was also on most domestic policy questions a liberal.
Senator Dodd proved a strong supporter of both the New Frontier and the Great Society; he voted for the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, Medicare in 1965, public housing, and incresed unemployment compensation. He also, consistent with his Justice Department work as a young man, was a consistent vote for civil rights legislation. and on one occasion lectured a conservative audience when addressing the Christian Anti-Communism Crusade in 1961, criticizing “extremist-conservatives” for “damning all liberals as pinks and crypto-Communists” (The New York Times). Dodd was also involved with the anti-communist American Security Council, earning $6,000 a year from broadcasts for several years. In 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson summoned Dodd for talks about being vice president, but this was really a move to help publicize him for reelection, and the nomination went to Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota. Although his reelection bid initially looked like it was going to be tough as his opponent was former Congressman John Davis Lodge, the publicity plus Barry Goldwater heading up the Republican ticket dragged Lodge’s candidacy down and Dodd won reelection in a landslide.
Dodd on Crime
Despite being a staunch civil rights supporter, Dodd in 1965 tried to get MLK arrested on the Logan Act for his public statements critical of the Vietnam War, seeing them as hindering the government’s position in negotiations (Garrow). In the over 200 years of the Logan Act’s existence, no one has ever been convicted of a violation.
Dodd was a major player in the debates on addressing rising crime, pushing the Gun Control Act of 1968, with critics alleging that he borrowed from Nazi-era German gun laws in drafting this law. That year, he also supported attaching an anti-riot section to the Civil Rights Act of 1968 anti-crime legislation and legislation revising the Mallory and Miranda Supreme Court decisions regarding criminal defendants so as to improve the government’s ability to fight crime. During the Nixon Administration, Dodd backed the administration’s position in pushing “no knock” warrants in drug cases.
Scandal
In 1965, the Senate created the United States Senate Select Committee on Ethics in response to the bitter partisanship that characterized the investigation into Senate senior aide Bobby Baker and created an ethics code to regulate the behavior of its members, and the first senator to run afoul of the committee was Dodd.
In January 1966, journalists Drew Pearson and Jack Anderson reported a series of stories outlining Dodd’s connections to PR consultant Julius Klein, who did work on behalf of West German businesses and alleging fundraising improprieties (U.S. Senate). The committee investigated both the connection and the improprieties.
Although the Senate Ethics Committee heard testimony that Dodd had received favors from Klein, the only hard evidence presented was that he on numerous occasions used Klein’s suite at Manhattan’s Essex House Hotel, and this part of the matter was dropped. Dodd would not be so fortunate on the improprieties.
After extensive investigation into documentary evidence, the Committee found that from $450,273 gained from seven campaign fundraising events between 1961 and 1965 and contributions for his 1964 reelection campaign that he had diverted at least $116,083 for his personal use and that he had on seven occasions accepted double reimbursement for travel: from the Senate as well as from private groups (U.S. Senate). Dodd fully denied wrongdoing in the matter. He also blasted Pearson and Anderson for their push to investigate him, asserting “A question at issue is whether Pearson and Anderson are to be given a hunting license to knock off all those in Congress who advocate a hard line of resistance to communist aggression and who oppose all tendencies to appeasement” (Kurlander). Dodd claimed that he was badly in debt at the time and that his family needed the money (Bumiller). This looked bad, although he did have his defenders. Dodd’s leading defender in the Senate was Russell Long (D-La.), the son of the late flamboyant de facto dictator of Louisiana and presidential aspirant Huey Long. Long’s defense of Dodd largely consisted of loose comparisons between his family’s troubles and Dodd’s troubles, which wasn’t all too helpful (Kurlander).
The Senate passed the censure resolution against him 92-5 on June 23, 1967, with Senators Abe Ribicoff (D-Conn.), Russell Long (D-La.), Strom Thurmond (R-S.C.), and John Tower (R-Tex.) joining Dodd in voting against. A censure is an official rebuke by the Senate for misconduct, and although it might sound like he was just getting lectured to, Dodd was only the seventh senator in the history of the legislative body to face this dishonor and the first strictly over personal financial conduct. A censure, certainly in 1967 (it may not in our age of partisanship turn out to mean much), served as a chain on the neck of any senator wanting to be reelected. Dodd stated, “I believe now, I shall continue to believe, that history will justify my conduct and my character”. One of his sons, Christopher Dodd, later reflected on his father’s behavior, saying that he “didn’t separate and distinguish his political and his personal life” (Bumiller).
Aftermath
With Dodd carrying the chain of censure, he nonetheless sought reelection in 1970, maintaining his innocence, and indeed his censure was the theme of the election. However, he lost renomination that year to anti-war Reverend Joseph Duffey, but he decided to run for reelection as an Independent. The three-way race was won by Republican Congressman Lowell Weicker. During the censure, Dodd had exclaimed “How many times do you want to hang me? Be done with it! Do away with me! In the twilight of my life! And that will be the end of me!” (Kurlander) Dodd’s words at the time turned out to be truer than he knew: only four months after his departure from the Senate, he suffered a fatal heart attack. He was 64 years old. In 1974, his son, Christopher, ran for Congress after an old friend of Dodd had asked him to do so, and he won. In 1980, the younger Dodd won the Senate election succeeding Abe Ribicoff and would serve until 2011. In an interesting note, Dodd was one of only two Democrats to vote to confirm the embattled John Tower as Secretary of Defense in 1989, and although he denied this, it seemed like a thank you for him voting against censuring his father in 1967.
In some ways, Dodd reminds me of Joe Lieberman. Although on most domestic fundamentals he was absolutely a Democrat, he was a more hawkish one regarding the Cold War, his consideration for vice president in 1964, and his effort to run for reelection as an Independent after losing renomination in 1970 are all reminiscent of Lieberman. Although Lieberman both got the nomination for VP in 2000 and was one of the few to win reelection on an Independent platform in 2006.
References
Bumiller, E. (1983, July 13). Christopher Dodd, His Father’s Son. The Washington Post.
S. 1451. Bridges-Johnston Amend. to Suspend Aid to Any Country Determined to Be Expropriating U.S.-Owned Property Without Adequate Compensation. Govtrack.
To Pass S.Res.112, Which, As Amended, Censures Sen. Dodd for Exercising the Power of his Office to Obtain and Use Money From Public Testimonials and Campaigns Funds for His Personal Use. Govtrack.
The late 1950s and 1960s was, oddly enough, a period of growth in conservative activism, certainly amplified by the 1958 midterms, which were devastating for conservatives. When Americans for Constitutional Action released their first ratings in May 1960, many were satisfied with this comprehensive scoring system. However, not all were. Among these people were Kent and Phoebe Courtney, a radical conservative husband and wife team who headed up the Conservative Society of America and were displeased with ACA for not grading final passage of foreign aid (they would start to do so for some years starting in 1962) and including no votes regarding reciprocal trade (they would grade the Mason motion in the House to recommit the Trade Expansion Act in 1962). They saw them as too favorable to Republican moderates and liberals and were in truth so radical that they were hesitant to vote for Goldwater in 1964 – to them he was too accommodating to GOP liberals. The Courtneys, who resided in New Orleans, were also segregationists. Their organization had some notable people involved, including Salt Lake City Mayor J. Bracken Lee, retired Major General Charles Willoughby (who I previously wrote about as one of the worst intelligence officers in American history), Professor Medford Bryan Evans (father of conservative writer and activist M. Stanton Evans), and Harold Lord Varney (a writer who had radical shifts in his political thinking over his life). Kent also would join the Board of Policy of Liberty Lobby. Thanks to some searching through the Internet Archive for yet more information on Americans for Constitutional Action, I have found some information including one of their scorecards for their “CSA Voting Index” for the House and Senate, specifically 1961. The pair are incredibly strict graders and remind me a bit of Mark Levin’s (who I can’t listen to because he regularly shouts himself until he is blue in the face) “Conservative Review”.
Minority Leader Charles Halleck of Indiana, known as a leader of the Conservative Coalition, scores a 32% in 1961. ACA by contrast scored him a 100% that year while ADA scored him a 10%. Even John Bircher John Rousselot of California, praised by conservative sources as a model legislator, got two votes wrong by Courtney’s measure, thus scoring an 89%. ACA and ADA, on the other hand, had respectively no complaints and no compliments about his 87th Congress record. The same went for John Ashbrook of Ohio, also regarded as a model legislator by conservatives. However, the Courtneys found three votes to dislike from him, rendering his score an 85%. Ashbrook, whose campaign slogan in his 1972 quixotic effort against Nixon was “No Left Turns”, never scored that low by ACA. Courtney’s measure also reminds me a bit of John Birch Society’s “Freedom Index”, although not close to as ridiculous as scoring Elizabeth Warren equal to Ted Cruz and higher than McConnell in the 2015-2017 Congress (The New American).
A mere five representatives were perfect by the Courtneys that year: Congressmen James B. Utt (R-Calif.) (who I have covered before), Elmer Hoffman (R-Ill.), Clare Hoffman (R-Mich.) (whose opposition to FDR was so staunch he wanted him indicted for sedition), Clarence Kilburn (R-N.Y.) (although if they had counted legislative pairs he would have been nailed on foreign aid spending), and Bruce Alger (R-Tex.). By contrast, sixty-three representatives scored a 100% by ACA in 1961.
For the Senate, Senators Strom Thurmond (D-S.C.) and John Tower (R-Tex.) also got 100%. By contrast, seven senators scored a 100% by ACA in 1961. Barry Goldwater (R-Ariz.) scored an 88%, with the Courtneys finding him having erred in voting for an unemployment compensation bill that only four senators voted against. Numerous Republicans are found little to no better than liberal Democrats: John Sherman Cooper (R-Ky.) gets hit with a big fat zero while Hiram Fong (R-Haw.) is only found to have voted right by them in opposing a feed grains bill. Prescott Bush (R-Conn.), father and grandfather to presidents George H.W. and George W. Bush, at 20% barely fares better than his Democratic colleague from the state, Thomas Dodd, who scores a 13%. One thing that surprised me was that given the Courtneys’ hostility to desegregation they didn’t include a single vote regarding civil rights. The ACA, on the other hand, included a vote striking a proposal from Jacob Javits (R-N.Y.) to permit the Attorney General to bring civil suits for injunctions to prevent deprivation of civil rights. Other notable exclusions include the issue of Hanford public power generation and the Ayres (R-Ohio) conservative substitute for minimum wage legislation, which both ACA and ADA covered in their ratings. For information on ACA scores for 1961, see my previous post on the subject.
I not only find ideology interesting, but also how people view others’ ideology based on voting, and the expectations of the Courtneys are, dare I say, ludicrously high from a right-wing perspective. Funny enough, the way some history YouTubers of a distinctly un-conservative perspective portray the Republican Party at the time they reinforce the views of the Courtneys in saying that they were by and large New Deal supporters, that both were big government parties.
References
Courtney, K. & Courtney, P. (1962). The CSA Voting Index. Conservative Society of America. (see pages 34 to 140)
The year is 1962 and Republican Congressman Edwin Dooley of Westchester County, New York, wants a fourth term. However, he isn’t the most exceptional representative, and his record from a conservative perspective is rather middling. Enter Ogden “Brownie” Rogers Reid (1925-2019).
Brownie Reid hails from a historically Republican family…it was his politically influential grandfather, Whitelaw Reid, who was picked for VP on Benjamin Harrison’s 1892 reelection effort. His father, Ogden Mills Reid, formed the New York Herald Tribune, a prominent Rockefeller Republican newspaper which had been highly influential in the party’s nomination of Wendell Willkie in 1940. Reid was also related to Ogden Mills, who served as President Hoover’s final Secretary of the Treasury. Ogden Reid himself ran the Tribune from 1955 to 1958. The Tribune, however, was facing financial troubles brought in part from some disastrous business decisions and was increasingly being overshadowed by The New York Times. Thus, the family sold the paper to Ambassador to Britain John Hay Whitney. The Tribune would shutter in 1966. Reid himself served as Ambassador to Israel under President Eisenhower from 1959 to 1961. Governor Nelson Rockefeller then appointed him to the State Commission on Discrimination. Reid was throughout his political career a staunch supporter of civil rights legislation.
Reid had the family advantage over Dooley but also an age advantage: at 37 he was 20 years younger, and most crucially managed to get the local party organization to back him. One of the ways in which he hit Dooley was on attendance, and indeed he was worse than the median on roll call attendance of 2.1% at the time for legislators at 6%, missing 37 of 613 roll calls (Govtrack). Ironically, Reid’s average would be worse than Dooley’s. This was largely in his last term in Congress, missing 836 of 3,272 roll call votes throughout his career, or 25.6%; the median at the time was 9.7% (Govtrack). Reid won the primary and as a new member of Congress he initially voted in the middle: in 1963, his Americans for Constitutional Action (ACA) score was a 61% while his Americans for Democratic Action (ADA) score was a 55%. However, in the next year, Reid came out solidly for the Great Society, voting for the Economic Opportunity Act, mass transit legislation, and other LBJ initiatives. However, Reid did vote against the Food Stamp Act of 1964, making the program permanent. His ACA and ADA scores respectively for 1964 were a 26% and a 69%. Reid’s record would get more liberal after being reelected in 1964, and conservative Republicans remarked that his initials, “O.R.”, stood for “Occasionally Republican” (Whitestone).
Reid found vanishingly few points of agreement with conservatives over the years, occasionally backing budget cuts here and there. He was one of the few House Republicans to repeatedly vote to back rent subsidies, voted for Medicare as well as against a Republican motion to recommit. Although conservative candidates tried to primary him, they never succeeded. Indeed, Reid was very popular in the general elections, winning reelection by over 40 points in 1966, 1968, and 1970. In 1969, Reid was the only Republican to vote against the “Toward Peace with Justice in Vietnam” resolution, a Congressional endorsement of President Nixon’s goals in Vietnam. However, Reid, who was closely allied to New York City Mayor John Lindsay, found himself taking the same path out of the party he did. On March 22, 1972, Reid switched party affiliation to Democrat, holding that he could not back President Nixon for reelection, that the GOP had “moved to the right”, was “not showing the compassion and sensitivity to meet the problems of the average American”, and objected to Nixon’s record on civil rights, Supreme Court nominations, and Vietnam (Lynn). Reid also acknowledged that he was facing a tough challenge from the right in the primary and that Republicans wished to block his greater political ambitions in the state. The Nixon Administration response to his switch came from Press Secretary Ronald Zeigler: “Who?” (Lynn) To show how liberal Reid was, I have below his ACA and ADA scores, modified to count pairs for and against but not to count mere absences against legislators.
Years
ACA
ADA
1963
61
55
1964
26
69
1965
11
89
1966
35
88
1967
24
80
1968
9
91
1969
12
93
1970
16
91
1971
11
94
1972
0
100
1973
4
95
1974
0
91
Average
17
86
Reid as a Democrat
In 1972, Reid faced his closest election ever, winning by 4.6 points in the longtime Republican district, being the first Democrat to win an election in the district in sixty years, a district whose representative in 1935, Charles Millard, voted against Social Security. In 1973, he was one of 35 representatives to vote against confirming Gerald Ford as vice president. Although Brownie Reid switched to the Democratic Party for reasons ideological and for career advancement, his final term in Congress was marked by absenteeism due to his ambitions to run for governor, only to be overwhelmed by Democratic Congressman Hugh Carey as he could find little enthusiasm outside Westchester County and he dropped out of the race in June 1974. That year, Reid opted not to run for Congress again. In 1983, Reid one more time tried for elective office, as executive of Westchester County, but lost. He was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations up until his death on March 2, 2019.
Reid’s Career: A Portend for Westchester County
Since his departure from Congress in 1974, his territory was only represented by one more Republican in Joseph J. DioGuardi, who served from 1985 to 1989. It turns out that Reid’s shift was predictive for the direction of Westchester County. The Democrat who defeated DioGuardi, Nita Lowey, served until 2021. The county has not voted for a Republican for president since 1988 and in 2020 67.6% of the county’s vote went to Biden, a record for a Democrat. However, parts of Westchester County are, as of writing, represented by Republican Mike Lawler.
P.S.: RIP James Buckley. Although less known than his younger brother, William F. Buckley Jr., founder of National Review, he made his own contributions in his single term in the Senate, particularly in his efforts against campaign finance regulation. He was the plaintiff in the landmark Supreme Court decision, Buckley v. Valeo (1976), and is one of the few senators since 1856 to be elected to neither the Republican or Democratic Party platform. Buckley is also arguably the last conservative to be elected to the Senate from New York (to what degree Al D’Amato was, is debatable).
References
1973 ADA voting record. Americans for Democratic Action.
As I had previously written, Republicans took a beating in the 1958 midterms, especially in the Senate, and that gave liberals an edge for decades. However, the socioeconomic conditions of the 1970s were wearing on the voters who were looking for something different. This came in the form of Ronald Reagan in 1980. Presidents do not always have coattails in their elections, but Reagan did, and 12 Senate seats flipped from Democrat to Republican and the Republicans won a net 36 House seats.
The presidential votes of the states in which Republicans benefited in 1980:
Alabama
1976: Carter +13.11 1980: Reagan +1.3
Alaska
1976: Ford +22.25 1980: Reagan +27.94
California
1976: Ford +1.78 1980: Reagan +16.78
Connecticut
1976: Ford +5.17 1980: Reagan +9.63
Florida
1976: Carter +5.28 1980: Reagan +17.02
Georgia
1976: Carter +33.78 1980: Carter +14.81
Idaho
1976: Ford +22.76 1980: Reagan +41.27
Indiana 1976: Ford +7.62 1980: Reagan +18.35
Iowa
1976: Ford +16.12 1980: Reagan +12.7
Michigan
1976: Ford +9 1980: Reagan +6.49
Missouri
1976: Carter +3.63 1980: Reagan +6.81
Nebraska
1976: Ford +20.74 1980: Reagan +39.49
New Hampshire
1976: Ford +11.28 1980: Reagan +29.39
New Jersey
1976: Ford +2.16 1980: Reagan +13.42
New Mexico
1976: Ford +22.02 1980: Reagan +18.18
New York
1976: Carter +4.43 1980: Reagan +2.67
North Carolina
1976: Carter +11.05 1980: Reagan +2.12
Oregon
1976: Ford +9.95 1980: Reagan +9.66
Pennsylvania
1976: Carter +2.66 1980: Reagan +7.11
Rhode Island
1976: Carter +17.47 1980: Carter +10.47
South Carolina
1976: Carter +13.04 1980: Reagan +1.53
Texas
1976: Carter +3.17 1980: Reagan +13.86
Utah
1976: Ford +12.46 1980: Reagan +52.2
Virginia
1976: Ford +1.34 1980: Reagan +12.72
Washington
1976: Ford +3.88 1980: Reagan +12.34
West Virginia
1976: Carter +16.14 1980: Carter +4.51
Wisconsin
1976: Carter +1.68 1980: Reagan +4.72
Democratic Gains:
Maryland
1976: Carter +6.07 1980: Carter +2.96
North Dakota
1976: Ford +5.85 1980: Reagan +37.97
The Senate races in which Democrats lost seats to Republicans were:
Alabama – Democratic Senator Donald W. Stewart loses renomination to Fob James, who loses the election to Republican war hero Jeremiah Denton.
Alaska – Democratic Senator Mike Gravel loses renomination to Clark Gruening, who loses the election to Republican Frank Murkowski.
Florida – Democratic Senator Richard Stone loses renomination to former Congressman Bill Gunter, who loses the election to Republican Paula Hawkins.
Georgia – Democratic Senator Herman Talmadge, who had been censured by the Senate on ethics issues, loses his bid for reelection to Republican activist Mack Mattingly.
Idaho – Democratic Senator Frank Church, who was most known for the Church Committee uncovering illegal activities by the FBI and CIA, loses his bid for a fifth term to Republican Congressman Steve Symms. Church to this day is the last Democrat to represent the state in the Senate.
Indiana – Democratic Senator Birch Bayh, who sponsored the Equal Rights Amendment and ran for the Democratic nomination for president in 1972, loses reelection to Republican Congressman and future Vice President Dan Quayle.
Iowa – Democratic Senator John Culver loses reelection to Republican Congressman Chuck Grassley, who still serves today.
New Hampshire – Democratic Senator John Durkin loses reelection to Republican Warren Rudman.
North Carolina – Democratic Senator Robert B. Morgan loses reelection to Republican John Porter East.
South Dakota – Democratic Senator George McGovern, the famously liberal Democratic presidential nominee in 1972, loses reelection by 20 points to Republican Congressman James Abdnor.
Washington – Democratic Senator Warren Magnuson, the most senior senator as he had served since 1944 and had as a representative sponsored the bill ending the Chinese Exclusion Act, is defeated for reelection by Republican State Attorney General Slade Gorton.
Wisconsin – Democratic Senator Gaylord Nelson, who had been a major environmentalist and promoter of Earth Day, loses reelection to Republican former Congressman Bill Kasten.
There were also some races that shifted the state’s seat to the right:
New York – Republican Al D’Amato defeated longtime liberal Jacob Javits for renomination and then narrowly won a three-way race.
Oklahoma – Republican Don Nickles succeeds retiring Republican Henry Bellmon. The former is considerably more conservative than the latter.
There was one that shifted the state’s seat to the left:
North Dakota – Republican Milton Young is succeeded by Republican Congressman Mark Andrews, who proves himself a bit of a rebel regarding the Reagan Administration in his one term.
Although the House was bad for Democrats, their majority was enough so that they kept the House.
California
Democratic Congressmen Harold Johnson, James Corman, James Lloyd, and Lionel Van Deerlin lose reelection to Republicans Eugene Chappie, Bobbi Fiedler, David Dreier, and Duncan Hunter respectively.
Connecticut
Republican Lawrence DeNardis wins in the 3rd district after the retirement of Congressman Robert Giaimo. His opponent, notably, was Joe Lieberman.
Florida
Democratic Congressman Robert Stack loses renomination in the 12th district, and Republican Clay Shaw wins the district.
Indiana
Democratic Congressman John Brademas loses reelection to Republican John P. Hiler.
Michigan
Democratic Congressman Bob Carr loses reelection to Republican James W. Dunn.
Minnesota
Democratic Congressman Rick Nolan chooses not to run again, and he is succeeded by Republican Vin Weber.
Missouri
Democratic Congressman Richard Ichord retires, and he is succeeded by Republican Wendell Bailey. Ichord was by this point quite conservative, so exchanging him for Bailey is no great loss for liberalism.
Democratic Congressman Bill Burlison is defeated for reelection by Republican Bill Emerson.
Nebraska
Democrat John Cavanaugh retires and is succeeded by Republican Hal Daub.
New Jersey
Democratic Congressmen Frank Thompson and Andrew Maguire are defeated for reelection by Republicans Chris Smith and Marge Roukema respectively. The previously popular Thompson’s loss was by 16 points on account of him being implicated in the Abscam scandal. Chris Smith still serves in Congress today.
New Mexico
Democratic Congressman Harold Runnels died before the 1980 election, and he is succeeded by Republican Joe Skeen. Like with Ichord in Missouri, Runnels had been quite conservative by this point.
New York
Democratic Congressmen Jerome Ambro, Lester Wolff, and John Murphy lose reelection to Republicans Gregory W. Carman, John LeBoutillier, and Guy Molinari respectively.
Democrat James Hanley retires, and Republican George Wortley wins the election.
North Carolina
Democratic Congressmen L. Richardson Preyer and V. Lamar Gudger lose reelection to Republicans Walter Johnston and Bill Hendon respectively.
Ohio
Democratic Congressman Thomas Ashley loses reelection to Republican Ed Weber.
Oregon
Democratic Congressman Albert Ullman loses reelection to Republican Denny Smith.
Pennsylvania
Democratic Congressmen Peter Kostmayer and Ray Musto lose reelection to Republicans James Coyne and James Nelligan respectively.
Rhode Island
Democratic Congressman Edward Beard loses reelection to Republican Claudine Schneider.
South Carolina
Democratic Congressman Mendel Davis retires, and Republican Thomas Hartnett wins the seat.
Democratic Congressman John Jenrette, implicated in the Abscam scandal, loses reelection to Republican John Napier.
Texas
Democratic Congressman Bob Eckhardt loses reelection to Republican Jack Fields.
Utah
Democratic Congressman K. Gunn McKay loses reelection to Republican James Hansen.
Virginia
Democratic Congressman Dave Satterfield retires and Republican Thomas Bliley wins the seat. Satterfield was quite conservative so this is no great loss for liberal Democrats.
Democratic Congressmen Herb Harris and Joe Fisher lose reelection to Republicans Stan Parris and Frank Wolf respectively.
Washington
Democratic Congressman Mike McCormack loses reelection to Republican Sid Morrison.
West Virginia
Democratic Congressman Harley Staggers retires, and Republican Cleve Benedict wins the election to succeed him.
Democratic Congressman John G. Hutchinson loses reelection to Republican Mick Staton.
Wisconsin
Democratic Congressman Alvin Baldus loses reelection to Republican Steve Gunderson.
Democratic Gains:
California
Republican Congressman William Royer is defeated for reelection by Democrat Tom Lantos. Royer had won a special election after Democratic Congressman Leo Ryan was murdered on the orders of Jim Jones by followers of the People’s Temple.
Maryland
Republican Robert Bauman, hindered by a gay sex scandal, is defeated for reelection by Democrat Roy Dyson.
North Dakota
Republican Congressman Mark Andrews runs for the Senate and wins, and Democrat Byron Dorgan wins the seat.
Ohio
Republican Congressman Samuel Devine loses reelection to Democrat Bob Shamansky in a stunning upset; his district was and still is Republican.
Overall
This election constituted perhaps most of all a repudiation of President Carter. It was also a turn away from many liberal policies of the 1960s and 1970s, given the losses of some big names in liberalism, such as Indiana’s Bayh, South Dakota’s McGovern, and Wisconsin’s Nelson. The Democrats would make something of a comeback in 1982 given the recession brought on by interest rate hikes from the Fed, although the Republicans would hold the Senate until 1987. One of the biggest takeaways was that it was the first time since 1952 that the Republicans won the Senate, and heralded the end of the era of Democratic dominance of the legislative branch, which had lasted since the 1932 election, as Republicans until 1980 only won control of any House of Congress twice.
Mad Politics: The Bizarre, Fascinating, and Unknown of American Political History 